Chemical Pollutants and Human Vulnerability: An Integrated Review of Environmental Chemistry and Public Health

Abstract

The intensification of industrial activities, urbanisation, and chemical production over the past century has led to the pervasive release of toxic chemical pollutants into the environment. These contaminants—including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, synthetic dyes, and emerging industrial chemicals—pose serious threats to environmental and human health. This integrated review examines the environmental chemistry, toxicological pathways, and health outcomes associated with these pollutants. It highlights the mechanisms of human exposure, including inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact, and identifies vulnerable populations such as children, pregnant women, the elderly, and low-income communities. Case studies from Japan, the United States, Ghana, Bangladesh, and India are presented to illustrate real-world consequences of pollution mismanagement. The work further explores advanced analytical techniques used in pollutant detection (e.g., GC-MS, ICP-MS, HPLC, FTIR, biosensors), and outlines the framework of risk assessment—comprising hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure analysis, and risk characterization. Finally, it discusses the integration of scientific evidence into public health policy, guided by principles such as the Precautionary Principle, Polluter Pays Principle, and Environmental Justice. This review underscores the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration to ensure effective chemical regulation, community protection, and sustainable environmental stewardship.